Training Principles

Most of you will find this article intimidating. We included it on our web site because we believe that the athletes we train should understand the principles and methodology of our training program. There are three approaches you can take to this article. First, you can just ignore it and trust that we know what we are doing. Second, you can begin to read it, get overwhelmed, give up and just trust that we know what we are doing. Third, (and the option we hope you choose) you can read this article in sections, digest and understand what you have read, then come back for more. We believe you will get the most benefit from our training program if you follow this third approach.

I. Periodization

If you want to improve your performances, you can't train the same way all the time. If you did, your body would simply adapt to the training you were doing, your fitness would settle in at a fixed level, and further training would have no impact on your fitness level.

Your body's tendency to merely maintain the status quo means that if you want to get better your workouts must progress to a higher level of difficulty. To progress, you could simply increase your intensity, volume, and/or frequency of training over time. As long as you weren't exceeding your body's ability to adapt, you would steadily get better. The trick would be to avoid exceeding your body's biomechanical and physiological limits; too much stress would actually begin to break your body down, rather than build it up.

This pattern of gradually increasing the quantity of work you do, the speed of your workouts, and/or the frequency with which you train is the simplest way to alter your training over time in hopes of improving your performances. Such progression does produce performance gains, but by itself it can never help you reach your ultimate potential, because it ignores the fact that your training must also be goal-oriented.

If you're an endurance athlete, for example, there are seven key things you must do to perform at your very best. You must:
1. Expand your VO2max (maximal aerobic capacity) to the greatest possible extent, so that your body becomes a huge energy-creating machine. As your capacity to process oxygen swells, your ability to exercise without fatigue increases dramatically, and the difficulty of various movement speeds decreases. To put it simply, you can run, cycle or swim further and faster.

2. Increase the strength of your muscles and connective tissues, because doing so fortifies your body against injuries and thus allows you to train and progress without unplanned interruption. Becoming stronger is also the first step on the path to improved economy (see goal no. 5).

3. Lift your lactate threshold (LT) to the highest-possible level. LT lift-offs increase all of your race paces and make it possible to move at faster-than-ever speeds without fatigue.

4. Maximize your power. Optimizing your power means not only developing greater force with your muscles - but also learning to exert that force more quickly than usual. Power means faster, more explosive movement - a quicker trip from start to finish of your races; it matters not at all whether your competitions last four minutes or three hours. Of course, one way to augment your average power output is to simply boost VO2max and lactate threshold, but developing maximal power also requires the utilization of special training techniques which increase your muscles' amount and rate of force production.

5. Become as economical as possible. Being economical means having Honda efficiency, even though you have a huge, 'Formula One' exercise motor (VO2max). Remember that possessing a great VO2max is synonymous with having an expanded heart, as well as muscles which have the capability of processing incredible amounts of oxygen, while being economical means moving along at decent speeds while your heart is still puttering along moderately and your muscles aren't forced to gear up all their oxygen-processing capacity (eg, even though the movement speed is high-quality, you're 'operating' at only a modest fraction of your VO2max, giving you lots of 'room' to pick up your pace without exceeding your oxygen-handling potential). Being economical means beating your fellow competitor, even though they have a similar VO2max, because you can run at the same race pace as him at a lower fraction of your capacity, making the speed feel easier to you.

6. Restore yourself regularly and systematically, healing the damage to your muscular and connective-tissue, which are the natural result of hard training, and thus permitting further hard work and a relentless approach toward your ultimate goal. This restoration must include one prolonged period each year during which your body totally refurbishes itself, making far more than the minor repairs required between workouts.

7. Develop specific endurance. It's not enough to be a physiological thoroughbred, with good VO2max, LT, economy, strength, and power in a rested body. You must also develop the ability to function smoothly and efficiently and with minimal fatigue at your goal speed - the one that will take you to a PB in your key competition of the season.

That's a lot to do! And of course, you can't accomplish all those goals at once - with the same kind of training. It would be ridiculous to expect to maximally increase your VO2max - a physiological change which depends on rather large amounts of intense training - at the same time as you were attempting to enhance your rest and recovery.

It would also be foolish to expect to optimize your lactate threshold at the same time as you were making large gains in power, since the former depends on continuous movement for 20 to 30 minutes at a time at moderately difficult paces and also the performance of long intervals (lasting for six to 12 minutes or so) at about 88 to 90 per cent of maximal, while the latter necessitates shorter blasts at considerably higher speeds and special power-building drills.

And it's silly to throw yourself into power training without first building a broad platform of strength; the upgraded strength will protect you from injury during the high-intensity power-promoting workouts, and maximal gains in power simply can't be achieved unless muscles first develop the ability to generate greater force. The lesson is that you must do things in step-by-step fashion when you train, rather than attempt to improve everything at once.

It's important to remember, too, that the gradual development of proficiency in a sport changes the way the body adapts to training and necessitates an actual change in the make-up of one's training program, to ensure that further performance progress can be attained. Beginning runners or runners coming back to the sport after a lay-off can make rather large gains in performance simply by boosting their mileage, while highly experienced runners must tweak their intensity of training and perform special strength- and power-building drills in order to continue to make progress.

For all of these reasons, the periodization of your training is critically important. Complicated definitions for periodization training exist, but the term simply means the division of your overall training program into periods which accomplish different goals. Since you can't do everything at once, you must divide your training time up into discrete blocks and tackle one or two goals at a time.

Before we get into the specifics of periodization, there are some definitions we should clear up first. Specifically the terms macrocycles, mesocycles, and microcycles.

A 'microcycle' is simply a number of training sessions which form a recurrent unit. For example, if your training consists of a hard day, an easy day, and then a rest day, followed by the hard-easy-rest pattern again, these three days represent your basic training unit, or microcycle. Or, if you're a runner and your typical training week consists of a hill workout, an interval session on the track, a long run, three easy runs, and a rest day, that repetitive weekly pattern is your microcycle.

In contrast, a 'mesocycle' is a block of training, consisting of some number of microcycles, which emphasizes the attainment of a particular goal. A 'macrocycle' is a long stretch of training which is intended to accomplish an extremely important overall goal, such as the preparation for and completion of a very important marathon. A macrocycle is made up of a number of different microcycles and covers a period of many months.

Typically, a microcycle lasts for five to 10 days (for many athletes, a microcycle is simply one week of training in a predictable way), a mesocycle usually covers four to 12 weeks, and a macrocycle lasts for 10 to 12 months. Many athletes who periodize their training don't alter their macrocycles very much; one year is structured very much like the next, and thus the year is the largest unit of periodization. However, some athletes think longer term and may utilize what are called 'large macrocycles' which consist of two to four 'small macrocycles,' each of which lasts about a year. These small macrocycles may differ from each other considerably.

Of course, these terms don't tell us much about how a periodization plan should be created, which is the really challenging part of periodization. The first step in proper periodization is to realize that there is not one best periodization plan; what works for one athlete may actually hurt the performances of another. A key reason for this, of course, is that different athletes can have dramatically different needs. For example, a runner with relatively poor muscular strength might need to spend several blocks of training (mesocycles) within a year focussing on developing general and running-specific strength by carrying out a variety of progressively more difficult resistance routines. Such a runner would also need to devote a large chunk of time to hill training, which increases the force-development capacities of the leg muscles. In contrast, a very strong runner could spend considerably less time on such activities and might more profitably mark off large periods of time to work on strengthening a particular weakness, such as a poor lactate threshold or a miserly VO2max.

So, it's clear that each individual athlete needs his or her own unique periodization plan. Periodizing an individual's program requires skill in figuring out what the athlete really needs, and of course knowledge of the various periodization possibilities (the different programs which might work effectively). The person doing the periodizing must be a 'training doctor' who can figure out what's wrong with the patient and also knows (and can evaluate) the various therapies which are available.

There are many periodization models, and much debate about which is 'best'. The most popular by far however is the so-called basic wave-like periodization pattern. Using this scheme, athletes first build up their volume (total quantity of training) to a rather lofty level (creating a big 'wave' of miles), while intensity (speed) of training remains fairly modest. This initial period of training is supposed to establish basic strength and endurance. The mileage wave then gradually weakens, replaced by a steadily increasing wave of intensity (mileage is reduced, but average movement speed rises as the quality of workouts increases). According to convention and tradition, the athlete is ready for major competitions once the intensity wave has peaked. After the competitive season is over, the individual rests for awhile before catching another mileage wave and beginning a new season of training.

This basic wavelike pattern of periodization is utilized, year after year, by millions of athletes all over the world. It has a certain logic to it (it seems good to gradually build muscular and connective-tissue strength before subjecting the body to the harsh rigours of high-intensity training). The idea is to gradually build up 'aerobic endurance' by covering lots of moderately paced miles (the mileage wave) and then to 'sharpen' athletes with intense 'anaerobic conditioning', which is supposed to improve speed and heighten surging and kicking ability in races. Viewed from a muscle-fibre rather than aerobic-anaerobic paradigm, the notion is to first work on the slow-twitch muscle fibres and then to shift attention to the fast twitchers in time for competition.

So, instead of worrying about developing raw anaerobic capability, you need to think about gradually increasing your power (your ability to cycle, swim, ski, skate, run, or row more quickly). A lot of that boosted power will come not from the development of 'anaerobic capacity' but simply from having a higher VO2max, because more oxygen processed per minute by muscle cells means more energy created per minute, more muscular force exerted per arm or leg movement, and higher movement velocities. Some will also come from improved economy, because better economy means being able to move up to higher speeds without incurring greater oxygen 'cost'. Some will come from lifting lactate threshold, because higher thresholds allow quality speeds to be sustained for longer periods of time. And some will come from better neuromuscular co-ordination - improved reactivity of the nervous system and a heightened ability to utilize available muscular force to drive the body forward, rather than stabilize uncoordinated body parts or waste energy on non-propulsive movements. And of course, some will come from pure strength - the ability to stabilize the body and generate large amounts of force. It's stupid to think that speed arises merely from 'anaerobic conditioning'.

Any periodization scheme must begin with one basic element - rest. This is intuitively and logically obvious: the human body simply needs 'down' (restoration) periods to recover from extended periods of stress; you must convalesce from the training you carried out in your just-completed mesocycle or macrocycle. That's the easy part; the difficult part involves answering two key questions: how often should a full recovery take place, and how long should the recovery period last?

We have anecdotal answers to the first question and scientific answers to the second. Of course, we do know that athletes need to recover well between individual workouts, and especially between high-quality sessions, and research which has investigated the phenomenon of 'tapering' has shown that athletes can profit from fairly regular back-downs in training lasting for a week or two, but we simply don't know how often endurance athletes need to reduce their training for more extended periods of time. Indeed, that need probably varies among athletes. Anecdotally, top athletes seem to profit from one month away from training each year. Of course, the word 'off' can mean different things. Some runners don’t run at all during their four-week break, others prefer to run at a moderate pace at least a couple of times a week. Again, there's probably no right way to do it: the key is to make sure the body's muscular, connective-tissue, endocrine, and nervous systems are fully restored before vigorous training is resumed.

We do know a bit more about the appropriate length of the recovery period, thanks to research carried out with marathon runners. A study carried out by Harvard Medical School and Tufts University uncovered extensive damage in marathoners' leg muscles immediately after the 26.2-mile race (broken cell fibres, swollen cells, mangled membranes, degenerated mitochondria, and damaged blood vessels were present). Repair of this sorry state of affairs took about four weeks, and in some runners it took even longer.

Subsequent research showed that moderate endurance training (about 31 miles of running per week - with no marathon running) can produce similar damage in 33 per cent of runners and slightly heavier training (48 miles per week with no marathoning) can induce comparable damage in the majority of runners. Thus, we can conclude that almost all serious runners need a recovery period, and that the minimal length of this recovery period should be four weeks.

During the recovery period, training should be held to a minimum. In runners, research suggests that - to minimize muscular stress - mileage should not exceed 20 miles per week, with no single run longer than eight miles. To burn calories and calm their appetites for exercise without stressing their muscle cells, runners can also bike or swim moderately during their recovery mesocycle, but the total quantity of exercise should be greatly reduced. At least one week of total inactivity, followed by three or more weeks with just one to three workouts per week, should optimize recovery in most endurance athletes.

After recovery, what's next? For runners, the answer is very clear. 65 per cent of all runners are injured during an average year, which tells us that runners' basic strength is poor. The muscles and connective tissues of the average runner are simply not ready to stand up to the stresses of regular training. So, once recovery has been completed, it's definitely time to begin strengthening the whole body - in preparation for the tough training to come.

It's also clear that the exercises used in this strengthening phase of training should involve all of the major muscle groups in the upper and lower body, including the critically important trunk muscles in the abdomen and low back. Such exercises literally make athletes stronger from their toes to their heads, an overall strengthening process which improves biomechanical stability, heightens economy, and promotes fatigue-resistance.

After this strengthening phase, proper periodization depends on the needs of the individual athlete; there is no one right way to do it.

II. Individual Differences

Because every athlete is different, each person's response to exercise will vary. A proper training program should be modified to take individual differences into account. Some considerations:

· Large muscles heal slower than smaller muscles;

· Fast or explosive movements require more recovery time than slow movements;

· Fast twitch muscle fibers recover quicker than slow twitch muscle fibers;

· Women generally need more recovery time than men;

· Older athletes generally need more recovery time than younger athletes;

These are just some of the many differences in athletes. All of these differences will factor into an athlete's training routine. Coaches should also be aware of these differences, and not expect all the athletes on a team to perform the exact same routines.

III. Overload

The principle of overload states that a greater than normal stress or load on the body is required for training adaptation to take place. The body will adapt to this stimulus. Once the body has adapted then a different stimulus is required to continue the change. In order for a muscle (including the heart) to increase strength, it must be gradually stressed by working against a load greater than it is used to. To increase endurance, muscles must work for a longer period of time than they are used to. If this stress is removed or decreased there will be a decrease in that particular component of fitness. A normal amount of exercise will maintain the current fitness level.

IV. Progression

The principle of progression implies that there is an optimal level of overload that should be achieved, and an optimal timeframe for this overload to occur. Overload should not be increased too slowly or improvement is unlikely. Overload that is increased too rapidly will result in injury or muscle damage. Beginners can exercise progressively by starting near threshold levels and gradually increasing in frequency, intensity, and time within the target zone. Exercising above the target zone is counterproductive and can be dangerous. For example, the weekend athlete who exercises vigorously only on weekends does not exercise often enough, and so violates the principle of progression. Many people, who consider themselves to be regular exercisers, violate the principle of progression by failing to exercise above threshold levels and in the exercise target zone. Clearly, it is possible to do too little and too much exercise to develop optimal fitness.

The Principle of Progression also makes us realize the need for proper rest and recovery. Continual stress on the body and constant overload with result in exhaustion and injury. You should not (and can not) train hard all the time. Doing so will lead to overtraining and a great deal of physical and psychological damage will result.

V. Adaptation

The body adapts to stress in a highly specific way. Adaptation is the way the body 'programs' muscles to remember particular activities, movements or skills. By repeating that skill or activity, the body adapts to the stress and the skill becomes easier to perform. Adaptation explains why beginning exercisers are often sore after starting a new routine, but after doing the same exercise for weeks and months the athlete has little, if any, muscle soreness. This also explains the need to vary the routine and continue to apply the Overload Principle if continued improvement is desired.

VI. Use / Disuse

Once you understand the Principle of Adaptation, you understand the need for rest. However, how much rest is enough and how much is too much? The Principle of Use/Disuse implies that you "use it or lose it." This simply means that your muscles hypertrophy with use and atrophy with disuse. The main problem here is finding the correct balance between stress and rest on the muscles. There must be periods of low intensity between periods of high intensity to allow for recovery. The periods of lower intensity training, or the rest phase, is a prime time for a bit of crosstraining. Cross training allows you to let over stressed muscle groups rest and recover, while still providing cardiovascular conditioning and providing muscle balance by working the muscles that aren't as integral to your sport.

VII. Specificity

Related to the principle of adaptation is the principle of specificity. Because the body will adapt in a highly specific way to the training it receives, a strong athletic foundation is needed before specific training methods will work optimally. The Specificity Principle simply states that for these reasons, training must go from highly general training to highly specific training. For example, if you are a sprinter, you may start out with easy running and general strength training before moving on to explosive training in the way of plyometrics or sprinting out of the blocks. If you try to do explosive, high intensity training too soon, you will run the risk of such training being ineffective and possibly resulting in injury. The principle of Specificity also implies that to become better at a particular exercise or skill, you must perform that exercise or skill. To be a good cyclist, you must cycle. The point to take away is that a runner should train by running and a swimmer should train by swimming. There are, however, some great reasons to cross train.

VIII. The Effects of Training

To effectively apply systematic increases in your program it is important to look at the effects of training. This should help you understand why and how to apply increases in your workout loads. The effects of training can fall into one of three categories:

1) Immediate: this describes effects immediately following the workout including fatigue and the beginning of the recovery process (see Figure 1).

Figure 1: Effects of a single workout with optimum load

Evaluation of immediate effects of training is crucial in selecting the right intensity, volume, rest intervals and the method used. Information on the character and extent of the immediate effect helps with the overall structure of training cycles and the order of different individual exercises in the training session. For example, slight changes in the intensity of exercises or improperly chosen rest periods in interval workouts will overload a different metabolism than planned. As well, scheduling future exercises without paying attention to the effects of previous ones, may create an unplanned reaction of the body. For instance, the effects of anaerobic exercises with lactate acid accumulation will be intensified if preceded by speed exercises, but if they follow long distance aerobic work, the effects will be decreased.

2) Delayed: this describes effects on the processes of restoration, recovery and supercompensation (improvement) of work capacity after a single training session (see Figure 1). The delayed effects are expressed by synthesis of protein, restoration of fuel storages and increases in hormonal and enzymes activities. Related to recovery and its after effects on the ability to perform, full restoration of functions overloaded with a workout, if not followed by the next load, go through recovery and full recovery of stressed functions. Supercompensation improvement above the level prior to the load will occur. However, this state is not permanent and after a short time benefits disappear.

3) Cumulative: this describes effects of training which are the result of added immediate and delayed after-affects of many individual training sessions. To reach a cumulative effect, progressive increases in training load must be executed in the presence of delayed effects of the previous session. If there is too much rest between workouts the effects of the previous training session are lost. In such a situation the best possible result would be maintenance. You must start the next workout during recovery from previous one, before full recovery occurs and supercompensation is reached. Waiting for complete delayed effect to take place is only beneficial on occasion and in the peaking cycle, but is not desired in the gradual progressive training process. The controlling elements here are frequency and the rest time between training sessions. After you execute several training sessions which start in presence of the effects from previous ones, you can add a rest session to allow the body to rebuilt and improve work capacity (Figure2).

Figure 2: Cumulative Effect of multiple training sessions